The Empire and Poland enjoyed peace for the remainder of Henry's reign. Our latest articles delivered to your inbox, once a week: Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. Manuel II Palaiologos or Palaeologus (Greek: , romanized:Manoul Palaiolgos; 27 June 1350 21 July 1425) was Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425. The failed attempt at usurpation by his older brother Andronikos IV Palaiologos in Otto II gave the newly diminished Duchy of Bavaria to his relative Otto, the Duke of Swabia,[3] and appointed Henry III, son of the former Bavarian Duke Berthold, as Duke of Carinthia. [25] Nevertheless, the Empire was forced to withdraw to the western banks of the Elbe river. Although his authority among the princes was weakened after the war, in Bohemia, Hungary and the Austria, however, Ferdinand's position as sovereign was uncontested. Consequently, its wording did not cover all, or even most, potential legal scenarios. The first of a succession of four Salian emperors, who reigned for one century until 1125, Conrad ruled the kingdoms of Germany (from 1024), Italy (from 1026) and Burgundy (from 1033).. In 973, Otto II granted their request. According to Michel Pintoin who chronicled the visit to Paris: Then, the king raised his hat, and the emperor raised his imperial cap he had no Philip's militant response meant the occupation of much of the upper provinces by troops of, or hired by, Habsburg Spain and the constant ebb and flow of Spanish men and provisions on the so-called Spanish road from northern Italy, through the Burgundian lands, to and from Flanders.[36]. Hearing that Michael IV the Paphlagonian of the Byzantine Empire had received the same request, Conrad went to Southern Italy, to Salerno and Aversa. Duits, Simon. His influence increased further after the fall of the powerful Imperial minister Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, who had domineered the politics of Ferdinand II. [27], Otto II's three-year-old son Otto III was crowned as King of Germany in Aachen on Christmas Day in 983, three weeks after his father's death. When Otto II died suddenly in 983, his infant son Otto III succeeded him, with his mother Theophanu serving as regent. A new emperor was only crowned in 1312 - over 60 years after the end of the Staufer Dynasty. The Swedes regained initiative with victory at Wittstock in 1636 and threatened his recently gained allies Brandenburg and Saxony. Free from his confinement, he seized the infant Otto III and, as a member of the ruling Ottonian dynasty, claimed the regency of the Empire for himself. With his older brothers dead, the two-year-old Otto became the Kingdom's crown prince and Otto I's heir apparent. [55][60], Poland did not stabilize in the wake of Mieszko's exile, forcing Conrad to convene an assembly in July 1033 to issue the Treaty of Merseburg which restored Mieszko to the Polish throne. Philip was culturally Spanish: he was born in Valladolid and raised in the Spanish court, his native tongue was Spanish, and he preferred to live in Spain. Otto II stayed in Italy to further address his military campaigns. Conrad then ordered Adalbero to be removed as Duke and sentenced him and his son to exile. Before his accession as Emperor, he ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs in the name of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. [3] However, this policy necessarily meant war not only with the Byzantine Empire but with the Muslim Fatimid Caliphate, which claimed southern Italy as within its sphere of influence. With his power over northern and central Italy secured, Otto I sought to clarify his relationship with the Byzantine Empire in the East. [citation needed] He met with little resistance on French territory,[9] devastating the land around Rheims, Soissons, and Laon. In the heated religious atmosphere of the 17th century, the imperial meddling in Bohemian (Protestant) affairs was interpreted as the Habsburgs overstepping their authority. 249250; Wernham, pp. In October 1397, Theodore Kantakouzenos, Manuel's uncle, alongside John of Natala arrived at the court of Charles VI of France, bearing the Emperor's letters (dated 1 July 1397) requesting the French king's military aid. Every new election carried with it the risk of losing the imperial crown to another ambitious family. Ferdinand was able to introduce more uniform governments for his realms and also strengthen his control over finance in Bohemia, which provided him with half of his revenue. This period is known as the Interregnum, meaning between reigns. The son of Emperor Henry II installed Jaromr as Duke of Bohemia and guaranteed protection against Polish aggression. Map of the Holy Roman Empire, 972-1032 CESmhur (CC BY-SA). Initially, the imperial party regained control of Bohemia soon enough. For other uses, see. After some five years of siege, Manuel II entrusted the city to his nephew, aided by a French garrison of 300 men led by Seigneur Jean de Chteaumorand and embarked (along with a suite of 40 people) on a long trip abroad along with the Marshal. These appointments continued his policy of appointing individuals who had no political links to Otto the Great, including those who had even rebelled against him. While the imperial government of the Roman Empire was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919. As Gisela's new husband, Conrad hoped to serve as regent for his minor stepson in the administration of the duchy, seeing it as an opportunity to increase his own rank and subsequently make a claim for his own duchy. The same year, he also defeated a Protestant revolt in Bohemia, where the estates and a large part of the nobility had denied him support in the German campaign. Imprisoning the Doge within his palace, the Venetian nobles set fire to the building. Under Ferdinand the fortifications of Vienna were massively expanded and updated as the emperor invested a total sum of over 80,000 fl. The Swedish king warred against the emperor for many years and scored great victories but was slain in battle in 1632. Otto II employed monks among his top political advisers, including Ekkehard I and Majolus of Cluny. In 1549, he agreed to support Ferdinand's claim, and Imperial armies marched into Transylvania. The Italian republics as well as the northern cities united in the Hanseatic League jumped into the power vacuum that Fredericks death created and enlarged their political and economic autonomy. Overview. On 25 December 967, Otto II was crowned Co-Emperor by Pope John XIII, securing Otto II's succession to the Imperial crown following his father's death. Other confessions had acquired popular, if not legal, legitimacy in the intervening decades and by 1555, the reforms proposed by Luther were no longer the only possibilities of religious expression: Anabaptists, such as the Frisian Menno Simons (14921559) and his followers; the followers of John Calvin, who were particularly strong in the southwest and the northwest; and the followers of Huldrych Zwingli were excluded from considerations and protections under the Peace of Augsburg. Conrad wanted to reward the archbishop for his electoral support, so he made Aribo chancellor of Italy as well, making Aribo the second most powerful man in the Holy Roman Empire as the imperial chancellor. [11] After celebrating Easter in Taranto, Otto II moved his army westward, defeating a Muslim army in early July. Mieszko was crushed by the Holy Roman and Kievan invaders and his exiled brother Bezprym's rebellion. Holy Roman Empire. Otto was a man of small stature, by nature brave and impulsive, and by training an accomplished knight. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, John Julius Norwich 1995, p351-54. Granted the title of despots by his father, the future Manuel II traveled west to seek support for the Byzantine Empire in 1365 and in 1370, serving as governor in Thessalonica from 1369. The core included a court council, privy council, central treasury and a body for military affairs, with the written business conducted by a common chancery. Eugenius made some modest attempts to win pagan support, and with Arbogast led a large army to fight another destructive civil war. He studied music under Giovanni Valentini, who bequeathed his musical works to him, and had close ties with Johann Jakob Froberger, one of the most important keyboard composers of the 17th century. The exact reason for this unusual procedure has been lost to history. He centralized his administration, revoked many urban privileges and confiscated properties. The armies of the Saladin, the Muslim Sultan of Egypt and Syrian r. 1174-1193) had conquered Jerusalem. [67][68] Conrad's biographer Wipo of Burgundy recorded that the Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common Imperial-Hungarian border in 1029, causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries. Recordings of Ferdinand's compositions include: Editing Ferdinand III, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, King of Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania, Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower Silesia, of Wrttemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg and Goritia, Marquess of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Higher and Lower Lusace, Lord of the Marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines, etc. [17] Accordingly, Ferdinand was crowned as King of Hungary in the Szkesfehrvr Basilica on 3 November, 1527. Thus, in 1536 the Hungarian Diet decided that a new place for coronation of the king as well as a meeting place for the Diet itself would be set in Pressburg. The young prince assumed Bavarian rule on 24 June 1027. The defeat at Stilo cost the Empire many nobles, forcing Otto II to end Henry's banishment in order to stabilize domestic affairs in Germany while he campaigned against the Muslims and Byzantines in southern Italy. She also composed music and wrote poetry and together with Ferdinand was the centre of the Italian academy. [9][10][11] Ferdinand's motto was Fiat iustitia, et pereat mundus: "Let justice be done, though the world perish".[12]. Strong emperors, on the other hand, fared better at subjugating them to their will, but always had to fight tooth and nail to project and protect their power. Unlike his earlier son Liudolf, whom Otto I named Duke of Swabia in 950, Otto II was granted no area of responsibility. Ferdinand did not endeavour to continue the war. Reviews revealed, that Ferdinand surrendered numerous previous claims and was ready for greater concessions than were ultimately necessary.[23]. King Otto I (the future Holy Roman Emperor) elevated him to Duke of Lorraine in 944. [31] After all, Leopold was crowned King of Hungary and Bohemia. [3] Otto II spent his reign continuing his father's policy of strengthening Imperial rule in Germany and extending it deeper into Italy. Conrad II (c. 989/990 4 June 1039), also known as Conrad the Elder and Conrad the Salic, was the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1027 until his death in 1039. Of the eastern marches, the Empire only kept the March of Lusatia. 123248). Ferdinand remarried to another first cousin, Maria Leopoldine of Austria (1632-1649) on 2 July 1648. During the Ottoman wars the territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary shrunk by around 70%. He commissioned decorative objects of all kinds and in particular mechanical moving devices. World History Publishing is a non-profit company registered in the United Kingdom. [47] An elected king himself, he gradually nudged the monarchy towards becoming hereditary, which would finally succeed under Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor.[48]. Ferdinand defeated Zpolya at the Battle of Tarcal in September 1527 and again in the Battle of Szina in March 1528. However, the death of Otto II the next year and the resulting civil war prevented the Empire from appropriately responding to the defeat. Henry married Gunhilda of Denmark, daughter of King Cnut the Great of England, Denmark and Norway by Emma of Normandy. The war in Hungary continued. Administration of Royal Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia, Milan Kruhek: Cetin, grad izbornog sabora Kraljevine Hrvatske 1527, Karlovaka upanija, 1997, Karslovac. His extreme cruelty caused his half-brother Otto Bolesawowic to conspire against him. Afterwards, he met Charles VI of France at Charenton on 3 June 1400. [3] Otto II's money and possessions were divided among the Catholic Church, the poor of the Empire, his mother Adelaide and sister Matilda, and those nobles loyal to him. With the Imperial family near the French border, Lothair invaded Lorraine and marched on Aachen. Completed in 1567, the portrait depicted Rudolf II at the age of 15. Otto the Great's efforts to consolidate the Church under Imperial control had made this type of action normal. In 953 Conrad joined the king's son Liudolf in rebellion against Otto. The obligation was only in effect if Vienna or the Empire was threatened.[43][44][45][46]. [28] Though Pavia was no longer the seat of imperial administration in Italy since the Ottonian dynasty, the palace had been perceived as a symbol of imperial authority in Italy and its mere presence within the city walls had been deemed intolerable. The Burlington Magazine, 122(927), 428 to 432. He appointed Richer, from Germany, as abbot of Monte Cassino, as abbot Theobald was imprisoned by Pandulf. "Holy Roman Empire." Though Mieszko regained his territory, he still was opposed by the nobility and his own subjects. The World History Encyclopedia logo is a registered trademark. His son Henry was invested with the duchies of Swabia and Carinthia.[79]. [2], He married the Spanish Infanta, his cousin Maria Anna of Spain, after years of negotiations with Spanish relatives in 1631. Rudolf was a patron of the occult sciences, along with this and his practice of tolerance towards Jews; it was during his reign that the legend of the Golem of Prague was established. The relationship between the Empire and the Republic of Venice was readdressed during Otto II's reign. This title, however, was not used by Otto IIs predecessors, from Charlemagne (or Charles I) to Otto Monasticism became a key part of Otto II's Imperial policy, entrusting the abbots with key political functions. [38][39] In his time, the influence of the Estates in these institutions were limited. Therefore, after the death of his brother-in-law Louis II, King of Bohemia and of Hungary, at the battle of Mohcs on 29 August 1526, Ferdinand immediately applied to the parliaments of Hungary and Bohemia to participate as a candidate in the king elections. The Swedes won the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1642. They offered the Italian crown to the Capetian king Robert II of France and his son Hugh Magnus. At age 17, Henry's march on Bohemia was his first independent military command. Those who had up to this time joined the Reformation obtained religious liberty until the meeting of a council and in a separate compact all proceedings in matters of religion pending before the imperial chamber court were temporarily paused. This led to the most dangerous moment of Ferdinand's career, in 1529, when Suleiman took advantage of this Hungarian support for a massive but ultimately unsuccessful assault on Ferdinand's capital: the Siege of Vienna, which sent Ferdinand to refuge in Bohemia. The weaker ones were on the receiving end of the political machinery of this confederal elective monarchy, de facto ruling over not much more than their familys hereditary lands. Only in some parts of Silesia were certain concessions made to the Protestants. From now on, the institutions of the empire should be equally occupied by Catholics and Protestants. The first of a succession of four Salian emperors, who reigned for one century until 1125, Conrad ruled the kingdoms of Germany (from 1024), Italy (from 1026) and Burgundy (from 1033). Otto II then had Charles crowned as King of the Franks by Theodoric I, Bishop of Metz. Pope Benedict VI, who had been appointed by Otto I, had been imprisoned by the Romans in Castel Sant'Angelo. Bretislaus was then confirmed as the new Duke of Bohemia by Conrad II. Soldiers from the Northern March, the March of Meissen, and the March of Lusatia, as well as from the Bishop of Halberstadt and the Archbishop of Magdeburg, joined forces to defeat the Slavs near Stendal. Our publication has been reviewed for educational use by Common Sense Education, Internet Scout, Merlot II, OER Commons and School Library Journal. [20][21], Aribo refused to crown Conrad's wife Gisela as queen as their marriage violated canon law. Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence, from the Twelve Tables (c. 449 BC), to the Corpus Juris Civilis (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I.Roman law forms the basic framework for civil law, the most widely used legal system today, and the terms are sometimes used Otto II was confined primarily to northern Italy during his father's time south of the Alps. Only in 972, six years later, under the new Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes, was a marriage and peace agreement concluded, however. Conrad pardoned Ernest and released him from prison in 1028, but Gisela retained regency over Swabia. Though established by Otto I, the exact details of the diocese's boundaries were left to Otto II and his aides. Ferdinand's legacy ultimately proved enduring. She was a daughter of Charles IV Gonzaga, Duke of Rethel. When they managed to speak with one voice, the Holy Roman Emperor was one of Europes mightiest sovereigns. Ferdinand was also elected King of Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, etc. Several issues of the Council of Trent were solved after a compromise was personally reached between Emperor Ferdinand and Morone, the papal legate. In 1648, after a long period of negotiations, a comprehensive peace package was agreed upon. Otto the Great also failed to clarify affairs in Italy prior to his death. [21], In 1538, in the Treaty of Nagyvrad, Ferdinand induced the childless Zpolya to name him as his successor. [28] News of Otto II's death first reached Germany after Otto III's coronation. In Vienna, the Habsburg family clung to power as Emperors of Austria-Hungary and ruled until the events of the First World War (1914-1918) made this imperial title obsolete as well. From that moment, the lord of a "member state", such as the Duke of Saxony or the King of Bohemia, could decide whether his lands were Catholic or Protestant. By his wife Helena Dragas, the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine Dragas, Manuel II Palaiologos had several children, including: In a lecture delivered on 12 September 2006, Pope Benedict XVI quoted from a dialogue believed to have occurred in 1391 between Manuel II and a Persian scholar and recorded in a book by Manuel II (Dialogue 7 of Twenty-six Dialogues with a Persian) in which the Emperor stated: "Show me just what Muhammad brought that was new and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached. But in 1540, just before his death, Zpolya had a son, John II Sigismund, who was promptly elected King by the Diet. The implementation of the Counter-Reformation in the core countries of Ferdinand was sanctioned. Romulus Augustus (c. 465 after 511), nicknamed Augustulus, was Roman emperor of the West from 31 October 475 until 4 September 476. [2], Brendan Simms notes that the reason Ferdinand was able to gain this sphere of power was Charles V's difficulties in coordinating between the Austrian, Hungarian fronts and his Mediterranean fronts in the face of the Ottoman threat, as well as in his German, Burgundian and Italian theatres of war against German Protestant Princes and France. To help calm the situation in the west, Otto II appointed Charles, his cousin and brother of Lothar, as Duke of Lower Lorraine. Ferdinand also brought about the royal election of his son Ferdinand IV, who, however died in 1654. [7] During his stay in France, Manuel II continued to contact European monarchs.[8]. The Staufer dynasty was one of the Holy Roman Empires most remarkable imperial houses. [34][35], Conrad summoned Adalbero to court at Bamberg on 18 May 1035, to answer an indictment of treason for his actions regarding Hungary. [8] The emperor reissued the instructions for the peace talks for Trautmannsdorf, who left for Westphalia as chief negotiator. Froberger lamented the emperor's death and dedicated to him one of his most celebrated works, Lamentation faite sur la mort trs douloureuse de Sa Majest Impriale, Ferdinand le troisime; a tombeau for Ferdinand III's death was composed by the renowned violinist Johann Heinrich Schmelzer. Due to the intervention of his mother Gisela, Ernest was allowed to accompany Conrad on his expedition to Italy in 1026. When the papacy instigated the Counter-Reformation, using agents sent to his court, Rudolf backed those whom he thought were the most neutral in the debate, not taking a side or trying to effect restraint, thus leading to political chaos and threatening to provoke civil war. He entertained him there royally for many days, paying the expenses of the emperor's stay, and by grand presents showing respect for a person of such eminence. Unlike his father, Otto II did not have any brothers to contest his claims to the throne. In autumn Conrad left his summer camp in the Po Valley and marched to the Burgundian border. His son, Conrad the Red, succeeded him as Count in 941. Budapest, Hungra: Udvari Knyvkereskeds Kiad. During the journey, in late June or early July 980, the Empress Theophanu gave birth to the Imperial couple's only son: Otto III. Duke Adalbero of Carinthia had been appointed as duke in 1012 under Emperor Henry II and remained loyal to imperial authority, supporting Conrad's election as German king in 1024. When Otto the Great died, the smooth succession to the imperial throne of Otto II had long been guaranteed. Nicolaus Olahus, secretary of Louis, attached himself to the party of Ferdinand but retained his position with his sister, Queen Dowager Mary. Mieszko did not adopt Bezprym's renunciation of the Polish crown and continued to style himself as King. In the spring of 1415, he and his soldiers left for the Peloponnese, arriving at the little port of Kenchreai on Good Friday, 29 March. He was also patron to some of the best contemporary artists, who mainly produced new works in the Northern Mannerist style, such as Bartholomeus Spranger, Hans von Aachen, Giambologna, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Aegidius Sadeler, Roelant Savery, Joris Hoefnagel and Adrian de Vries, as well as commissioning works from Italians like Veronese. Meanwhile, Martinuzzi attempted to keep the Ottomans happy even after they responded by sending troops. Bavaria retained its electoral dignity it had won at the beginning of the war, a further - eighth - electoral estate was created in the Palatinate. On 7 May 973, Otto died of fever, and Otto II succeeded his father as sole Emperor without meeting any opposition. Some 50 years after its establishment, most of the collection was packed into wooden crates and moved to Vienna. [46], The rebels sought the support of Mieszko, which the Polish king granted, promising to take military action against Conrad. Following Henry's appointment, Conrad held court at Regensburg and decreed that all imperial property in the duchy must be documented. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919. These dubious claims to property and the excessive promotion of imperial authority over ducal and clerical affairs throughout Bavaria caused, unsurprisingly, new tension between him and the German aristocracy.[13][33]. Shortly after, Mieszko expelled Detric and reunited the whole country. [1], By the time Ferdinand became Emperor, vast sections of the imperial territories had been absolutely devastated by two decades of war. Conrad and Emperor Henry II eventually reconciled and he returned to Germany. At their height of power in the 13th century, the Staufers ruled - in theory - from the southern border of Denmark to the Mediterranean island of Sicily. Its German population was composed of Catholics and Lutherans. With no clear successor, Henry II demanded that Otto II name him as the new Duke of Swabia. Otto invaded northern Italy, installed order, married Adelaide, and continued to Rome. [20] Unhappily Manuel returned home with empty hands from the Hungarian Kingdom, and in 1424 he and his son were forced to sign an unfavourable peace treaty with the Ottoman Turks, whereby the Byzantine Empire had to pay tribute to the sultan. Rudolf spent eight formative years, from age 11 to 19 (15631571), in Spain, at the court of his maternal uncle Philip II, together with his younger brother Ernest, future governor of the Low Countries.[2]. In Rome, Otto II held a magnificent court ceremony to mark Easter. Romulus was placed on the imperial throne by his father, the magister militum Orestes, and, at that time, still a minor, was little more than a figurehead for his father.After Romulus ruled for just ten months, the barbarian general This title, however, was not used by Otto IIs predecessors, from Charlemagne (or Charles I) to Otto Otto II appointed Willigis, the Archbishop of Mainz, to serve as his regent over Germany. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/Holy_Roman_Empire/. Although he tried to juggle all these affairs, in 1555 an exhausted Charles V gave in to Protestant demands and resigned soon thereafter. Unable to flee back to his stronghold in Sicily due to an Ottonian naval blockade, al-Qasim faced Otto's army in a pitched battle south of Crotone at Cape Colonna on July 14, 982. [18] Otto II's march caused the Byzantine Empire to seek an alliance with Muslim Sicily in order to hold on to its southern Italian possessions. Otto I then sent word for Otto II to join him in Italy. These became worse with age, and were manifested by a withdrawal from the world and its affairs into his private interests. The Reichshofrat was revived to deal with affairs concerning imperial prerogatives. [58][59], The regulation was short-lived as in 1033 Otto was killed by one of his own men, and Mieszko II took over his domains. Both men were brothers of former emperor Henry II and Conrad appointed them to high office at his court. Ferdinand I (Spanish: Fernando I; 10 March 1503 25 July 1564) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1556, King of Bohemia, Hungary, and Croatia from 1526, and Archduke of Austria from 1521 until his death in 1564. His father also arranged for Otto II to marry the Byzantine Princess Theophanu, who would be his wife until his death. In summer 974, Harald rebelled against Otto II. Thank you! The appointment of Otto as Duke of Swabia was taken by Henry II as an assault on his claim to the Imperial throne and a slight to his honor. Although imperial authority waned during the Late Middle Ages, cities, guilds, and burghers cooperated to improve their position. He was a member of the House of Habsburg. These were often the moments when the imperial dynasty was replaced with a new one, only to start the cycle anew. [26] At first, Ferdinand accepted this situation and he gave considerable freedom to the Bohemian estates. Henry II and his followers complied and submitted to Otto II before armed conflict broke out. Otto II's support of Charles, however, infuriated the French king, who claimed the Duchy as his own territory. Under the Peace of Bautzen in 1018, all three parties remained in uneasy peace, with Poland allowed to retain the Margraviate of Meissen. First, Ferdinand had rushed the article on reservatum ecclesiasticum through the debate; it had not undergone the scrutiny and discussion that attended the widespread acceptance and support of cuius regio, eius religio. [3] Charles and Lothair were also feuding, with Charles being exiled from France over an infidelity allegation concerning Lothair's wife. Overview. Due to domestic difficulties, financial and military Spanish support for Ferdinand was completely stopped in 1645. The emissaries justified the actions of their fellow citizens by claiming that Pavia had always been loyal to the Italian king, as long as the king was alive and present, and that the revolt had taken place when the Italian throne was vacant. Although not a military leader, Ferdinand was a capable organizer with institutional imagination who focused on building a centralized government for Austria, Hungary, and Czechia instead of striving for universal monarchy. [9], After the early death of his uncle Conrad I, Duke of Carinthia, Conrad's infant son, Conrad II, Duke of Carinthia the Younger, was named Count of Worms by Emperor Henry II while the Duchy of Carinthia passed to Adalbero of Eppenstein due to Conrad the Younger's infancy. [49] Though Emperor Otto III allied with Duke Bolesaw I of Poland to reintegrate them into the Empire, Otto III's death ended the friendly relationship between Poland and the Empire. Shortly before his death he was tonsured a monk and received the name Matthew. With the appointment, the three southern German duchies of Swabia, Bavaria and Carinthia were all under the control of Emperor Conrad through his family members (his stepson Herman in Swabia, his son Henry in Bavaria, and his cousin Conrad in Carinthia). In 1031, Conrad concluded a peace treaty with Hungary by ceding the lands between the rivers Lajta and Fischa to Hungarian control. The Byzantine Emperor objected to Otto's use of the title "Emperor". Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919. A majority of the assembled princes favored the elder Conrad, as the father of a seven-year-old son implied a more stable dynastic future for the kingdom. He made the unprecedented decision of choosing his 10-year-old son Henry, ignoring several suitable candidates who held valid claims to the fief. Bezprym's own men murdered him in spring 1032, which created a power vacuum in Poland. These documents were kept strictly secret and were only published in 1962. [citation needed], Rudolf died in 1612, nine months after he had been stripped of all effective power by his younger brother, except the empty title of Holy Roman Emperor, to which Matthias was elected five months later. Find Cheap Flights with easyJet Over the last 25 years easyJet has become Europes leading short-haul airline, revolutionising European air travel by allowing passengers to book cheap flights across Europes top flight routes, connecting more than 30 countries and over 100 cities.Were not only committed to providing low-cost flight tickets, but also providing a great service to and However, in 1393 a large insurrection erupted in Bulgaria which, although successfully put down put down by the Ottomans, caused Bayezid to lapse into an episode of paranoia in which he believed his various Christian vassals were plotting against him. [7], In 1607, Rudolf sent Julius to live at esk Krumlov in Bohemia (in what is now the Czech Republic), a castle which Rudolf purchased from Peter Vok/Wok von Rosenberg, the last of the House of Rosenberg, after he fell into financial ruin. In 13761379 and again in 1390, they were supplanted by Andronikos IV and then his son John VII, but Manuel personally defeated his nephew with help from the Republic of Venice in 1390. Otto II arrived in Italy at Pavia on December 5, 980. Archduke Leopold Wilhelm managed to drive off the opponents. Although he too had been born in Spain, he had administered his brother's affairs in the Empire since 1531. Conrad stripped Ernest of his ducal title and imprisoned him at Giebichenstein Castle in Saxony. At Augsburg Conrad received the support of Bishop Bruno and at Strasbourg he acquired the support of Bishop Werner. [3] Years earlier in 958, Otto the Great banished their father Reginar III, Count of Hainaut, to Bohemia after he attempted a failed revolt. Theophanu sought to reconcile the imperial house with Henry I, restoring him as Duke of Carinthia in 985, with Otto of Worms allowed to regain his ancestral position as Count of Worms. It was because of this shift from feudalism to a mercantile business economy that Italy started breaking away from the Holy Roman Empire. He was made co-ruler by his father, Henry IV, in 1098. Tycho Brahe developed the Rudolphine Tables (finished by Kepler, after Brahe's death), the first comprehensive table of data of the movements of the planets. The Holy Roman Empire officially lasted from 962 to 1806. During this exile, Gisela bore Conrad a son, the future emperor Henry III, on 28 October 1017. 10 Dec 2022. Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire, The Holy Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction. By the end of winter, the Italian aristocrats voluntarily ended their opposition to Conrad's reign. On 8 December 1625 he was crowned King of Hungary, on 27 November 1627 King of Bohemia. Otto II also continued the work of Otto I in subordinating the Catholic Church to Imperial control. Some of them even went to war against the Empire, and many Bohemian (German or Czech) Protestants or Utraquists sympathized with them.[26]. [9] According to one of the chroniclers of the time, he was given the epithet of the "Red" when in 981 he invited the most troublesome of the Roman families to a banquet, and proceeded to butcher them at dinner. [6], In February 1026, Conrad assembled a large army of armored knights for an expedition into Italy, including troops commanded by both Archbishop Aribo of Mainz and Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne. A Chair from the 'Kunstkammer' of the Emperor Rudolf II. Subsequently, Conrad left Rome and toured south to receive homage from the Southern Italian principalities of Capua and Salerno and the Duchy of Benevento. The nobles saw use of these treason trials not as mere power shifts in favor of the Emperor, but as a cruel breach of German tradition. This was an arrangement that Conrad had made many years prior, when he gave Canute parts of northern Germany to administer. His campaigns under Otto I and Otto II incorporated all three of the southern Lombard principalities - Benevento, Capua, and Salerno - into the Holy Roman Empire. At this Reichstag he also made an alliance with Poland against Sweden. When Leo died a few days later, Archbishop Aribert became the chief supporter of the Salian dynasty in Italy. Ferdinand gained wider political influence, even if his personal contribution in Nrdlingen was rather limited. He was the eldest son and successor of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, and King of Hungary and Croatia; his mother was the Spanish princess Maria, a daughter of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. Conrad II's mother was Adelaide of Metz. A daughter, a twin to Otto, who died before October 8, 980. The precise term Sacrum Romanum Imperium dates only from 1254, though the term Holy Empire reaches back to 1157, and the term Roman Empire was used from 1034 to denote the lands under Conrad IIs rule. His body is buried at Speyer Cathedral, which was still under construction at the time. [3] He spared no expense in acquiring great past masterworks, such as those of Drer and Brueghel. Exhausted by war, his citizens in Hungary revolted in the Bocskai Uprising, which led to more authority given to his brother Matthias. They were followed by the Princes of the Blood who, once the banquet in the royal palace finished, escorted [the emperor] to the lodgings which had been prepared for him in the Louvre castle]. Though Otto III had once eased tensions among the warring parties by declaring that both bishops would be entitled to anoint the Abbess and her sisters, the conflict still lingered. [30], While these specific failings came back to haunt the Empire in subsequent decades, perhaps the greatest weakness of the Peace of Augsburg was its failure to take into account the growing diversity of religious expression emerging in the so-called evangelical and reformed traditions. In addition, Rudolf II employed his polyglot court physician, Anselmus Boetius de Boodt, to curate the collection. Rudolf kept a menagerie of exotic animals, botanical gardens, and Europe's most extensive "cabinet of curiosities"[3] (Kunstkammer) incorporating "the three kingdoms of nature and the works of man". The son of Following the defeat of Otto II at Stilo in 983, the Lutici Federation of Polabian Slavs revolted against their German overlords, sparking the Great Slav Rising (Slawenaufstand). This agreement broke down quickly because that family line of the Carolingian Dynasty went extinct. The state church of the Roman Empire refers to the church approved by the Roman emperors after Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, which recognized the catholic orthodoxy of Nicene Christians in the Great Church as the Roman Empire's state religion. [2] Granted the title of despots by his father, the future Manuel II traveled west to seek support for the Byzantine Empire in 1365 and in 1370, serving as governor in Thessalonica from 1369. For each Lndergroup, regiments (or governments) and treasury offices were created. [56] The humanists he invited had a major influence on his son Maximilian. Before Henry II's civil war in southern Germany erupted, Otto II was faced with disputes in western Germany. Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter! World History Encyclopedia. In order to give the hope of dynastic continuity after his death, Otto I again confirmed Otto II as his heir on 2 February 965, the third anniversary of Otto I's coronation as Emperor. When they managed to speak with one voice, the Holy Roman However, faced with a potential invasion by Hungary and the failure of the Lutici to provide their promised contingent of troops, Conrad retreated. Conrad had named Bishop Bruno of Augsburg regent of Germany while he marched south to Italy. 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